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国际贸易英语案例及分析

发布时间: 2022-10-05 13:40:15

1、关于几个汉译英的句子翻译(国际贸易实务英语)高分请高手来解答。急!!!!!!

1. Packing: goods should have moistureproof, corrosion, shockproof and suitable for packing of YuYuanYang transport goods e to improper packing, the goods caused by the seller shall be responsible and loss. The seller shall not fade in each package marked with the color measurement, gross weight, net weight, and "moisture", "handle with care".

2 for CFR terms: the sellers shall be stipulated in the contract, the goods within the time as by the port of loading to China port, shipping directly without consent of housing in the ship.

3 shipment advice of shipment: immediately after completion, the seller notifies the house with contract number, name of goods, quantity or weight loaded, invoice value, name of vessel, port of shipment, sailing date and port of destination. Due to the seller does not give the advice of shipment cable to buy be unable to arrange insurance in time, the occurrence of the sellers shall be responsible for all the losses.

4 seller with the following documents to the negotiating bank payment payment:
Made out to order, blank endorsed in blank set of clean on board ocean bills of lading
Signed invoice, indicating contract number 5 shipment wharf.
Indicate the size of the packing list/weight sheet 2

5 commodities inspection: it is mutually agreed that the manufacturer of quality and quantity or weight inspection certificate as payment negotiation bank payment to the seller is one of the documents.

6: e to the force majeure generally recognized as force majeure causes not delay delivery or non-delivery of the goods, the seller liable. But the seller shall advise immediately, when the accident happened in the house.

7 all from the execution of this contract, both parties concerned dispute shall be settled through friendly consultations. If no settlement can be reached between, the dispute shall be submitted to the China council for the promotion of international trade for arbitration to the foreign trade arbitration commission.

2、谁能提供英语形式的国际贸易案例分析

4. A Chinese importer entered into a CIF contract with an American exporter, in which the Chinese importer imported some machine components from the American exporter. The goods have been loaded on time at the shipping port stipulated in the contract. Four hours after the vessel left for the destination, it ran aground on a reef and sank. The next day, when the seller held the bill of lading, insurance policy, invoices and other shipping documents to require the buyer for payment, the buyer refused to accept documents and payments, saying that all the goods had been ruined.
Question: In such circumstances, does the seller hold the right to require the buyer to pay the bill? Why?

3、求英语高手翻译 国际贸易的一段文章

What is the international trade? International trade is a national proction of goods and services, and to another country proction of goods and services. Why you need to trade? Has the following reasons:
The world of unbalanced distribution of natural resources. Some of the country's natural resources storage than the actual demand of the country, and some other countries have no such natural resources. Therefore, some countries can proce more related procts, more than their actual needs, and some other countries cannot proce enough procts to meet the demand of domestic.
With the development of manufacturing and technology, there was another stimulus, promote the proction of instrial procts, some of these procts by other countries and instrial customers. For example, the car is made in Japan than chinese-made cars more popular.
In addition to the above mentioned, trade between countries can make all parties to make a profit, even if one a country has the ability to lower the cost of procing all the goods. As is known to all, Japan, Germany and the United States is the most advanced countries in the world, but if you know the fact that the development of foreign trade, they brought them, so as to establish a huge dollar today of modernization.
Besides the trade, and tangible invisible trade. The visible trade refers to the import and export of goods, and the invisible trade between different countries are the service trade. Some countries may have many can export commodities or manufactured goods, but they have charming climate and natural scenery to develop their tourism, and tourism is an invisible trade. And invisible trade and visible trade are equally important.
啊 累死了 我都帮你打了4天了 分给我把 我的手啊!!

4、国际贸易专业英语什么书最好

没有最好的书,只能说比较合适的书吧?
你说的是国际贸易类的英语书吧?
建议你看看商务英语类的,好比商务英语,商务函电,国际贸易与实物案例分析。这些都是比较实用的。

5、关于国际贸易的英语论文 急!

Protectionism Doesn't Pay The global financial crisis is no doubt a catalyst for trade protectionism. As the world economy deteriorates, some countries try to boost growth prospects by erecting trade barriers. China calls on these governments not to replay history and revert to protectionism and economic isolationism.

Previous global economic crises were usually accompanied by frequent trade disputes. The United States' erection of large-scale tariffs in 1930, for example, triggered a retaliatory global trade war. During the two oil shocks in the 1970s and 1980s, trade frictions emerged when major economies attempted to increase exports by depreciating their currencies. And in the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, there was a notable uptick in antimping actions, countervailing ties and other protectionist measures.

The financial crisis is now spilling over into the real economy, hitting sectors like manufacturing and services. In almost all countries, factories are closing and unemployment is rising, creating political pressure and social problems. More and more governments are strengthening intervention in their economies under the excuse of 'economic security' and protecting vulnerable domestic instries to curb imports from other countries, especially those in emerging markets.

Trade protectionism differs from legally acceptable measures to protect trade. It is an abuse of remedies provided by multilateral trade rules. This kind of protectionism is morphing into more complex and disguised forms, ranging from conventional tariff and nontariff barriers to technical barriers to trade, instry standards and instry protectionism.

With the economic crisis worsening, caution must be taken even in employing trade protection measures consistent with World Trade Organization rules. At the Group of 20 Financial Summit in November 2008, world leaders called for countries to resist trade protectionism and committed themselves to refraining from erecting new barriers to trade and investment, a message strongly echoed by the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation summit at the end of last year, and the World Economic Forum held in Davos last month.

History tells us that trade protection measures hurt not only other countries, but eventually the country that erected that trade barrier in the first place.

To counter the Great Depression, the U.S. adopted the Smoot-Hawley Act in 1930, which raised import ties of over 20,000 foreign procts significantly and provoked protectionist retaliation from other countries. Faced with that crisis, other countries pursued beggar-thy-neighbor policies that slashed global trade volumes from $36 billion in 1929 to $12 billion in 1932. Among the victims, not the least was the U.S. itself, where exports shrank from $5.2 billion in 1929 to $1.2 billion in 1932. Even in the U.S., the Smoot-Hawley Act was widely believed to be a catalyst that aggravated the effects of Great Depression.

Global trade is now in dire straits. Thanks to shrinking external demand caused by the economic crisis, major trading countries have seen their export growth tumble or have suffered huge contractions. Germany's exports dropped 10.6% in November 2008, compared to the same period the prior year -- the highest one-month drop since 1990. China also experienced negative export growth in November, and a 17.5% decline last month, when compared to the prior year. Protectionist policies would make things even worse and the consequences would be hard to predict.

In the heat of the crisis, it's critical that all countries refrain from pointing fingers at each other or pursuing their own interests at the expense of others. The financial crisis reflects a chronic illness resulting from global economic structural imbalance and financial risk accumulation, and there is no quick fix to this malady. The fundamental interest of every country is to step up consultation and cooperation and keep international trade smoothly flowing. Healthy international trade can help revive the world economy. During the Great Depression, the U.S. recovered from its economic woes because the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration implemented the New Deal and shunned protectionism.

Today's unprecedented financial crisis has inflicted a severe impact on China and other countries as well. China's economic growth has slowed, exports have plunged and unemployment pressure has mounted. Yet even so, China still firmly believes that trade protectionism isn't a solution to the world's problems. In 2008, amid a contraction in global trade, China imported $1.133 trillion worth of goods from countries around the world -- an 18.5% increase over the prior year. These imports are boosting the economic development of China's trading partners. Since the crisis broke out, the Chinese government has decisively put forward a series of measures aiming at stimulating domestic demand. Given the size and openness of our country, the growth in China's domestic markets can be translated into greater market potential and investment opportunities for other countries. This year China will continue to increase imports and send buying missions abroad for large-scale purchase of equipment, procts and technology.

China has always championed our mutually beneficial opening-up policy and advocated international economic cooperation. We maintain that the Doha Round of global trade negotiations should be taken forward in a way that meets the interests of members and complies with the multilateral trading system already established. China is ready to stand together with all nations in the world to face up to the challenges of today, tackle the financial crisis through cooperation and guide the world economy into a new period of prosperity.
贸易保护主义无法拯救世界经济

对贸易保护主义来说,全球金融危机无疑是一针催化剂。近一时期,随着全球经济形势恶化,一些国家自危、自利、自保倾向抬头。有识之士为此感到忧虑,呼吁各国在出台经济刺激计划时,一定要防止贸易保护主义和经济孤立主义的历史重演。

历次全球经济危机往往都伴随着贸易争端的高发。1930年美国政府大范围提高关税,引发了全球范围报复性贸易战。上世纪七八十年代两次石油危机时,主要国家放任货币贬值以扩大出口的作法引发了贸易摩擦。1997年亚洲金融危机之后,全球反倾销、反补贴和保障措施案件明显增多。

当前,金融危机已蔓延到制造业、服务业等实体经济领域,各国工厂倒闭剧增,失业率上升,政治压力和社会问题接踵而至。越来越多国家以“经济安全”和保护本国虚弱产业为由加强政府对经济的干预,阻挠其他国家特别是新兴国家企业出口。

贸易保护主义不同于正当的贸易保护措施,它是对多边贸易规则中救济措施的滥用。从传统的关税和非关税壁垒,到技术性贸易壁垒、行业标准等,以及产业保护主义,当前贸易保护主义的形式更加复杂多样,隐蔽性更强。在危机加剧的背景下,即使符合WTO规则的保护措施也应慎用,这已成为各国共识。在2008年11月举行的G20金融峰会上,各国领导人同声呼吁抵制贸易保护主义,承诺在未来一年内,避免设置新的贸易和投资壁垒。年底的APEC领导人会议和今年初的世界经济论坛达沃斯年会,再次发出了反对保护主义强音。

历史是一面镜子。任何针对他国的贸易保护举措,不仅会损害对方,最终也会伤及自身。经验告诉我们,大规模的贸易保护措施将使金融危机下本已严峻的经济形势更加困难。

1930年美国为了应对经济危机,颁发了《斯姆特-霍利关税法》,大幅提高超过2万种外国商品的进口关税,结果引起了其他国家的贸易保护主义报复。面对危机,各国以邻为壑,全球贸易总额大幅缩减,从1929年的360亿美元缩小到1932年的120亿美元,美国自身也深受其害,出口总额从1929年的52亿美元左右缩减到1932年的12亿美元。这一法案即使在美国国内也被普遍认为是大萧条加剧的催化剂。

如今全球贸易形势已相当严峻:经济危机导致外需衰退,各主要贸易国的出口增速已急剧下滑,甚至出现大幅萎缩。德国08年11月份出口额较前月大幅下滑10.6%,为1990年以来的最大单月降幅。中国08年11月以来出口连续出现负增长,其中09年1月出口下降了17.5%。如果未来贸易保护主义泛滥,使严峻的形势雪上加霜,造成的后果很难预料。我们应该认真思索,这样的后果世界能否承受,又是否值得承受?

危机当头,重要的是各国携手共克时艰,而非互相指责,以邻为壑。金融危机是全球经济结构失衡、金融风险积聚长期积累的结果,解决问题也不可能一蹴而就。当前加强磋商、增强合作,保持国际贸易渠道畅通,才符合各国的根本利益。国际贸易的健康发展,是推动世界经济复苏的重要力量。当年罗斯福政府实行新政,与贸易保护主义决裂,带领美国经济走出低谷,推动了全球经济的增长。

在这场前所未有的世界金融危机中,中国与其他国家一样都受到严重冲击。去年第三季度以来,经济增速放缓,出口大幅下滑,就业压力加大。即便如此,中国仍坚定认为,贸易保护主义是条死胡同。在全球贸易萎缩的情况下,2008年中国从各国进口11331亿美元的商品,增长18.5%,促进了贸易伙伴的经济发展。危机爆发以来,中国政府果断出台了一系列扩大内需的措施。作为一个开放的大国,中国内需的提升可为其他国家提供更大的市场空间和更多的投资机会。今年,中国将继续扩大进口,积极组织企业采购团,赴海外大规模采购,进口设备、商品和技术。

中国始终奉行互利共赢的开放战略,倡导国际经济合作。我们主张积极推进符合各国利益与多边贸易体制的多哈回合谈判。中国愿与世界各国一道,以开放迎接挑战,以合作应对危机,共克时艰,推动世界经济走向新的繁荣。

6、英语高手进来帮我翻译一下~~是关于国际贸易的~~谢谢~~~~

In international trade, payment is an important means of transaction, but buyers and sellers want to ensure their own interests as far as possible, then ensure that their own interests, but also should ensure that the interests of others in order to build a peaceful, friendly, healthy international trading system. These cases is because there is no careful selection of relatively safe method of payment, so that the drilling of some lawless elements take advantage, which gave us a wakeup call and the lessons learned. Unless the transfer of trust in your friends is very under used, other times for safety, I recommend the use of letters of credit or payment, letters of credit also is now the most secure method of payment. Careful choice of payment method, because it is money you can get the key to the smooth. Of the conclusion of the contract should have to understand the contents of each payment and the payment of the corresponding time, location and payment method of payment, corresponding to their contract to take the best of their own, the risk of the smallest payment. At the same time should also be provided for test, inspection agencies designated to be guaranteed their own interests. Of course, this trade contracts only a small part, but it can not be ignored. Therefore, in determining the contract should be reviewed carefully to ensure that in future the smooth settlement of International Settlements.

7、国际贸易实务英语案例

deno fob的风险划分点是装运港的船舷,卖方没有义务租船订舱,卖方负责租船订舱,而卖方可以委托卖方办理,但是卖方可以拒绝且不负有责任

8、2,请用英语描述国际贸易理论有哪些?

国际贸易理论试图解释为什么有国际贸易,以及作为一个国家应当如何对待国际贸易。

目录

1概述

2古典派

▪ 重商主义

▪ 重农学派

▪ 绝对优势

▪ 比较优势

▪ 保护贸易

▪ 相互需求

3新古典派

▪ 要素禀赋

▪ 里昂惕夫

4全新派

5新兴派

6当代变化

7著作

8国际贸易专业自考

▪ 专业概述

▪ 培养目标

1概述编辑
国际贸易理论的发展大致经历了古典、新古典、新贸易理论以及新兴古典国际贸易理论四大阶段。

古典和新古典国际贸易理论以完全竞争市场等假设为前提,强调贸易的互利性,主要解释了产业间贸易。

二战后,以全球贸易的新态势为契机,新贸易理论应运而生,从不完全竞争、规模经济、技术进步等角度解释了新的贸易现象。

新兴古典国际贸易理论则以专业化分工来解释贸易,力图将传统贸易理论和新贸易理论统一在新兴古典贸易理论的框架之内。
2古典派编辑
古典的国际贸易理论产生于18世纪中叶,是在批判重商主义的基础上发展起来的,主要包括亚当·斯密的绝对优势理论和大卫·李嘉图的比较优势理论,古典贸易理论从劳动生产率的角度说明了国际贸易产生的原因、结构和利益分配。
重商主义
在15世纪末16世纪初的资本主义原始积累时期,出现了重商主义(Mercantilism)的国际贸易观点,也称贸易差额论(晚期重商主义),其核心是追求贸易顺差,代表人物有英国的托马斯·孟(Thomas Mun)。重商主义认为,财富的唯一形式即金银,金银的多少是衡量一国富裕程度的唯一尺度,而获得金银的主要渠道就是国际贸易。通过奖出限入求得顺差,使金银流入,国家就会富裕。
重农学派
17世纪下半期,在法国出现了反对重商主义,主张经济自由和重视农业的思想,形成了重农学派(physiocratic school),其创始人是弗朗斯瓦·魁奈(F.Quesnay)。

重农学派的核心思想是主张自由经济,包括自由贸易,他们认为“自然秩序”(包括自由贸易)是保证市场均衡和物价稳定的重要机制。
绝对优势
18世纪末,重商主义的贸易观点受到古典经济学派的挑战,亚当·斯密(Adam Smith)在生产分工理论的基础上提出了国际贸易的绝对优势理论。

在《国民财富的性质及原因的研究》(国富论)中,斯密指出国际贸易的基础,在于各国商品之间存在劳动生产率和生产成本的绝对差异,而这种差异来源于自然禀赋和后天的生产条件。

亚当·斯密认为在国际分工中,每个国家应该专门生产自己具有绝对优势的产品,并用其中一部分交换其具有绝对劣势的产品,这样就会使各国的资源得到最有效率的利用,更好地促进分工和交换,使每个国家都获得最大利益。
比较优势
鉴于绝对优势理论的局限性,大卫·李嘉图(David Ricardo)在《政治经济学及赋税原理》中继承和发展了斯密的理论。

李嘉图认为国际贸易分工的基础不限于绝对成本差异,即使一国在所有产品的生产中劳动生产率都处于全面优势或全面劣势的地位,只要有利或不利的程度有所不同,该国就可以通过生产劳动生产率差异较小的产品参加国际贸易,从而获得比较利益。

比较优势理论遵循“两优取其重,两劣取其轻”的原则,认为国家间技术水平的相对差异产生了比较成本的差异,构成国际贸易的原因,并决定着国际贸易的模式。
保护贸易
1841年,德国经济学家弗里德里希·李斯特(Friedrich List)在《政治经济学的国民体系》中提出基于国家主义的贸易保护政策理论,指出保护制度要与国家工业的发展程度相适应,又称幼稚产业保护论。

与重商主义不同的是,他从保护生产力的高度把贸易和国家经济发展结合起来,形成以国家主义为基调的贸易保护理论,在实施贸易保护政策方面也更加客观实际。
相互需求
李嘉图的比较优势理论只论证了建立在各国专业化生产前提下的互利贸易基础和利益所在,没有说明总的贸易利益如何在贸易双方进行分配。

约翰·穆勒(John Stuart Mill)在《政治经济学原理》中,从相互需求角度出发,确定了国际间商品交换的价格问题,以解释两国间贸易利益是如何分配的。

相互需求理论实质上是指由供求关系决定商品价值的理论,是对比较优势理论的完善和补充。

该理论用两国商品交换比例的上下限解释双方获利的范围; 用贸易条件说明在利益的分配中双方各占的比例; 用相互需求强度来解释贸易条件的变动。
3新古典派编辑
19世纪末20世纪初,新古典经济学逐渐形成,在新古典经济学框架下对国际贸易进行分析的新古典贸易理论也随之产生。
要素禀赋
1919年,瑞典经济学家埃利·赫克歇尔(Eil F Heckscher)提出了要素禀赋论的基本观点,指出产生比较优势差异必备的两个条件。

1930年代,这一论点被他的学生伯尔蒂尔·俄林(Beltil G Ohlin)所充实论证,其代表作《地区间贸易和国际贸易》进一步发展了生产要素禀赋理论,因而这一理论又称为H-O理论。

与古典贸易模型的单要素投入不同,H-O模型以比较优势为贸易基础并有所发展,在两种或两种以上生产要素框架下分析产品的生产成本,用总体均衡的方法探讨国际贸易与要素变动的相互影响。

其核心内容为:在两国技术水平相等的前提下,产生比较成本的差异有两个原因:一是两国间的要素充裕度不同;二是商品生产的要素密集度不同。

各国应该集中生产并出口那些充分利用本国充裕要素的产品,以换取那些密集使用其稀缺要素的产品。这样的贸易模式使参与国的福利都得到改善。

20世纪40年代,保罗·萨缪尔森(Palua A Samuelson)用数学方式演绎了H-O模型,指出国际贸易对各国收入差距的影响,将必然使不同国家间生产要素相对价格和绝对价格均等化,这也称为生产要素价格均等化定理或H-O-S定理(赫克谢尔—俄林—萨缪尔森模型)。

这一定理潜在地认为,在没有要素跨国流动的条件下,仅通过商品的自由贸易也能实现世界范围内生产和资源的有效配置。

和这一理论相关的还有另外两个基本定理。

国际贸易对本国生产要素收益的长期影响,由斯托尔珀-萨缪尔森定理归纳为:出口产品生产中密集使用的要素(本国充裕要素)的报酬提高;进口产品生产中密集使用的要素(本国稀缺要素)的报酬降低;不论这些要素在哪个行业中使用。

罗勃津斯基定理认为,在两种商品世界中,如果相对价格固定不变,一种生产要素增长会减少另一种商品产量。表明要素禀赋的变化决定着资源配置的变化。

这些定理均对H-O理论进行了重要拓展。
里昂惕夫
按照H-O理论,美国是一个资本丰裕而劳动力相对稀缺的国家,其对外贸易结构应该是出口资本、技术密集型产品,进口劳动密集型产品。

20世纪50年代初,美籍苏联经济学家里昂惕夫(Leontief)根据H-O理论,用美国1947年200个行业的统计数据对其进出口贸易结构进行验证时,结果却得出了与H-O理论完全相反的结论,这一难题称为里昂惕夫悖论。

里昂惕夫悖论虽没有形成系统的理论观点,但它对原有国际分工和贸易理论提出了严峻的挑战,引发了对国际贸易主流思想的反思,推动了二战后新的国际贸易理论的诞生。
4全新派编辑
二战后,国际贸易的产品结构和地理结构出现了一系列新变化。

同类产品之间以及发达工业国之间的贸易量大大增加,产业领先地位不断转移,跨国公司内部化和对外直接投资兴起,这与传统比较优势理论认为的贸易只会发生在劳动生产率或资源禀赋不同的国家间的经典理论是相悖的。

古典与新古典国际贸易理论都假定产品市场是完全竞争的,这与当代国际贸易的现实也不相吻合,在这样的国际环境下,新贸易理论应运而生。

新生产要素理论

新生产要素理论赋予了生产要素除了土地、劳动和资本以外更丰富的内涵,认为它还包括自然资源、技术、人力资本、研究与开发、信息、管理等新型生产要素,从新要素的角度说明国际贸易的基础和贸易格局的变化。

1、自然资源理论

1959年,美国学者凡涅克(J. Vanek)提出了以自然资源的稀缺解释里昂惕夫悖论的观点,认为美国进口自然资源的开发或提炼是耗费大量资本的,会使进口替代产品中的资本密集度上升。扣除资源的影响,美国资本密集型产品的进口就会小于其出口。

2、人力资本理论

人力资本理论以基辛(D. B. Keesing)、凯南(P. B. Kenen)、舒尔茨(T. W. Schultz)为代表,对H-O理论作了进一步扩展,将人力资本作为一种新的生产要素引入。

通过对劳动力进行投资,提高其素质和技能,进而提升劳动生产率。

人力资本充裕的国家在贸易结构和流向上,往往趋于出口人力资本或人力技能要素密集的产品。

3、研究与开发学说

格鲁伯(W. Gruber)、维农(R. Vernon)认为研究与开发也是一种生产要素,一个国家出口产品的国际竞争能力和该种产品中的研究与开发要素密集度之间存在着很高的正相关关系。

各国研究与开发能力的大小,可以改变它在国际分工中的比较优势,进而改变国际贸易格局。

4、信息要素

信息虽然是一种无形资源,但它能够创造价值。现代信息技术对生产的影响越来越强,对信息的利用状况会影响一个国家的比较优势,从而改变一国的国际分工和国际贸易地位。

偏好相似理论

1961年林德(S. B. Linder)在《论贸易和转变》一书中提出了偏好相似理论,第一次从需求方面寻找贸易的原因。

他认为,要素禀赋学说只适用于解释初级产品贸易,工业品双向贸易的发生是由相互重叠的需求决定的。

偏好相似理论的基本观点有:

产品出口的可能性决定于它的国内需求; 两国的贸易流向、流量取决于两国需求偏好相似的程度,需求结构越相似则贸易量越大; 平均收入水平是影响需求结构的最主要因素。

动态贸易理论

动态贸易理论主要从动态角度分析国际贸易产生与发展的原因。

1、技术差距理论

技术差距理论又称创新与模仿理论,M·V·波斯纳(Michael V. Posner)和胡弗鲍尔(G. G. Hufbauer)将技术作为一个独立的生产要素,侧重从技术进步、创新、传播的角度分析国际分工的基础,扩展了资源禀赋论中要素的范围。

技术差距指一国以技术创新和控制技术外流而形成的一种动态贸易格局,会对各国要素禀赋的比率产生影响,从而影响贸易格局的变动。

2、产品生命周期理论

雷蒙德·弗农(Raymond Vernon)将市场营销学中的产品生命周期理论与技术进步结合起来阐述国际贸易的形成和发展。1966年他在《产品周期中的国际投资与国际贸易》一文中指出,美国企业对外直接投资与产品生命周期有密切关系。

这一产品生产的国家转移理论,假设国家间信息传递受到一定的限制、生产函数可变以及各国的消费结构不同,指出产品在其生命周期的不同阶段对生产要素的需要是不同的,而不同国家具有的生产要素富饶程度决定了该国的产品生产阶段和出口状况。

产品生命周期理论将比较优势论与资源禀赋论动态化,很好地解释了战后一些国家从某些产品的出口国变为进口国的现象。

3、“技术外溢”与“干中学”学说

这种观点将技术作为内生变量,罗默提出的“干中学”式的技术进步,大部分是从技术外溢中获得的,即从贸易或其他经济行为中自然输入了技术。

经克鲁格曼(Krugman)论证,若引进国将外溢国的技术用于比较优势产业,则对两国均有利;反之对两国均不利。

假设国内技术外溢的速度高于国际技术外溢,国家原先的领先产业有加速发展的可能,原有的比较优势会增强。技术的传播使各国的差异不断扩大,强调了技术变动对国际贸易的动态影响。

4、动态比较优势理论

林毅夫等提出,一个国家的产业和技术结构从根本上取决于国内要素禀赋,其升级是产业结构升级的基础。

资本存量的变化对一国要素禀赋的影响最大。

资本存量的增加来自于积累,积累取决于储蓄倾向和经济剩余的规模。

制度性决定的储蓄倾向是固定的,因而影响资本存量的关键是经济剩余的规模。

如果一国的产业和技术结构能够充分利用其资源禀赋的优势,则其生产成本就较低,竞争能力就较强,进而创造更多的经济剩余,积累量也就越大。

因此,通过发挥比较优势能够较快地实现资源结构的升级,从而加快产业结构升级。

产业内贸易理论

产业内贸易理论又称差异化产品理论,以不完全竞争市场和规模经济为前提,从动态角度出发考虑需求情况,更符合实际。由于产业内贸易规模的不断扩大,80年代以来许多经济学家陆续建立模型对这一问题从不同角度进行探讨。

1、新张伯伦模型

在产业内贸易理论的发展过程中,克鲁格曼(Krugman)的模型具有开创性作用,他将迪克西特(Dixit)和斯蒂格利茨(Stiglitz)提出的将差异产品和内部规模经济考虑在内的垄断竞争模型推广到开放条件下,创立了“新张伯伦模型”。

模型证明了当市场结构从完全竞争变为不完全竞争,达到规模报酬递增阶段的时候,即使两国间没有技术和要素禀赋差异,产品水平差异性和规模经济也可推动国际贸易,增加两国的福利。

2、兰卡斯特模型

这一基于简单的水平差异产品的产业内贸易模型,以产品特性和消费者偏好的唯一占优选择性为基础解释两国贸易。

兰卡斯特(Lancaster)认为,在具有相同特点的经济体之间,如果不存在贸易壁垒和运输成本,在规模收益最大化和消费偏好差异的影响下,两个经济体间仍能进行产业内分工和贸易。

3、新赫克歇尔—俄林模型

新赫克歇尔—俄林模型基于垂直产品差异,弗尔维(Falvey)等人通过对H-O模型假设前提的调整,将产品差异与劳动和资本等要素的不同组合之间建立一种联系,但仍用要素禀赋来预测贸易,因而又称为“新要素比例学说”。

这一理论认为,资本相对充裕的国家出口同种产品中资本密集的高质量品种,劳动力相对充裕的国家则出口劳动密集的低质量品种,由此形成的产业内贸易实质上还是垂直分工的结果,在对传统贸易理论的最小偏离下,同时解释了产业间和产业内的贸易模式。

4、布兰德—克鲁格曼模型

为解释标准化产品产业内贸易现象,布兰德(Brander)和克鲁格曼构造了一个“相互倾销模型”(差别垄断模型)。

模型指出各国开展贸易的原因只在于垄断或寡头垄断企业的市场销售战略,国际贸易的结构既不受要素禀赋、产品成本差别的限制,也不受生产者和消费者对差异产品追求的限制。

此模型表明,贸易是扩大竞争的一种方式,不完全竞争的企业可以通过贸易向别国的国内市场倾销以扩大销售,即使存在运输成本,也会存在双向贸易,并由两国间需求弹性的预期差异决定贸易量。

这就为两国相互倾销的行为提供了解释途径。

5、垂直差异产业内贸易模型

与新H-O模型所不同的是,垂直差异产业内贸易模型以寡头垄断市场假定为前提。弗尔维研究认为,一个产业包括依质量高低排列的一个“产品链”,即垂直差异性产品。

弗尔维(Falvey)和凯克斯基(H. Kierzkowski)建立的F-K模型表明,在完全的垂直型产业内贸易与完全没有这类贸易之间有许多过渡类型,垂直型产业内贸易的程度与特性依赖于要素禀赋、技术和收入分配情况对不同国家的相对影响。

费莱姆(Flamand)和赫尔普曼(Helpman)
建立的费—赫模型提出了另一种观点。假设有两国均生产某种产品,生产效率不同,劳动是唯一的生产要素。国际分工以产品差异性的形式体现,一国生产高质量的
产品具有比较优势,另一国相反,决定产品质量的是劳动投入,这里指“人力资本”。如果两国生产结构和消费结构不吻合,就可能发生产业内贸易。

国家竞争优势理论

哈佛大学教授迈克尔·波特(Michel E. Porter)提出的这一理论,从企业参与国际竞争这一微观角度解释国际贸易,弥补了比较优势理论在有关问题论述中的不足。

波特认为,一国的竞争优势就是企业与行业的竞争优势,一国兴衰的根本原因在于它能否在国际市场中取得竞争优势。

而竞争优势的形成有赖于主导产业具有优势,关键在于能否提高劳动生产率,其源泉就是国家是否具有适宜的创新机制和充分的创新能力。

波特提出的“国家竞争优势四基本因素、两辅助因素模型”中,生产要素、需求状况、相关产业和支持产业、企业战略、结构和竞争对手、政府、机遇都是国家竞争优势的决定因素。

波特根据以上各大要素建立了钻石模型,说明了各个因素间如何相互促进或阻碍一个国家竞争优势的形成。

从发展阶段来看,一个国家优势产业的发展可分为四个不同阶段,即生产要素推动阶段、投资推动阶段、创新推动阶段,财富推动阶段。

该理论对当今世界的经济和贸易格局进行了理论上的归纳总结。
5新兴派编辑
新兴古典经济学是
20世纪80年代以来新兴的经济学流派.新兴古典贸易理论依托新兴古典经济学的新框架,将贸易的起因归结为分工带来的专业化经济与交易费用两难冲突相互作
用的结果,从而对贸易的原因给出了新的解释思路,使贸易理论的核心重新回到分工引起的规模报酬递增,是一种内生动态优势模型,是贸易理论和贸易政策统一的
模型,是国内贸易和国际贸易统一的模型,能够整合各种贸易理论,是贸易理论的新发展。

20世纪80年代以来,以杨小凯为代表的一批经济学家用超边际分析法将古典经济学中关于分工和专业化的经济思想形式化,将消费者和生产者合二为一,发展成新兴古典贸易理论。

该理论使研究对象由给定经济组织结构下的最优资源配置问题,转向技术与经济组织的互动关系及其演进过程,力图将外生的比较利益因素引入到基于规模报酬递增的新兴古典经济学的贸易理论模型中,把传统贸易理论和新贸易理论统一在新兴古典贸易理论框架之内。

此理论的内生分工和专业化新兴古典贸易模型(Sachs, Yang and Zhang,1999)表明,随着交易效率从一个很低的水平增加到一个很高的水平,均衡的国际和国内分工水平从两国都完全自给自足增加到两国均完全分工,在转型阶段,两种类型的二元结构可能出现。

经济发展、贸易和市场结构变化等现象都是劳动分工演进过程的不同侧面,贸易在交易效率的改进过程中产生并从国内贸易发展到国际贸易,两者之间有一个内在一致的核心。
6当代变化编辑

代国际贸易的变化主要表现为产业内贸易和发达国家之间的贸易迅速增长。所谓产业内贸易(intra-instiry
trade)是与传统国际贸易理论解释的产业间贸易(inter-instry
trade)相对的一个概念,指的是同一产业内的产品之间的贸易,也就是说一个国家既进口又出口同一类产品。

这些现象的出现对传统的国际贸易理论提出了挑战。占世界贸易额相当大比重的一部分贸易并不是因为比较成本的差异或者
资源禀赋的差异而发生的。为了解释这些国际贸易的新现象,以克鲁格曼、雷蒙德·弗农等为代表的大批经济学家提出了各种新的学说。这些学说与传统国际贸易理
论既有区别,又有联系。我们把这些学说称为新国际贸易理论。

9、求一篇有国际贸易类的英文文献

What Is International Trade?

If you walk into a supermarket and are able to buy South American bananas, Brazilian coffee and a bottle of South African wine, you are experiencing the effects of international trade.

International trade allows us to expand our markets for both goods and services that otherwise may not have been available to us. It is the reason why you can pick between a Japanese, German and American car. As a result of international trade, the market contains greater competition and therefore more competitive prices, which bring a cheaper proct home to the consumer.

What Is International Trade?
International trade is the exchange of goods and services between countries. This type of trade gives rise to a world economy, in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global events. Political change in Asia, for example, could result in an increase in the cost of labor, thereby increasing the manufacturing costs for an American sneaker company based in Malaysia, which would then result in an increase in the price that you have to pay to buy the tennis shoes at your local mall. A decrease in the cost of labor, on the other hand, would result in you having to pay less for your new shoes.

Trading globally gives consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to goods and services not available in their own countries. Almost every kind of proct can be found on the international market: food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewelry, wine, stocks, currencies and water. Services are also traded: tourism, banking, consulting and transportation. A proct that is sold to the global market is an export, and a proct that is bought from the global market is an import. Imports and exports are accounted for in a country's current account in the balance of payments. (For more on this, see the articles What Is The Balance Of Payments? and Understanding The Current Account In The Balance Of Payments.)

Increased Efficiency of Trading Globally
Global trade allows wealthy countries to use their resources - whether labor, technology or capital - more efficiently. Because countries are endowed with different assets and natural resources (land, labor, capital and technology), some countries may proce the same good more efficiently and therefore sell it more cheaply than other countries. If a country cannot efficiently proce an item, it can obtain the item by trading with another country that can. This is known as specialization in international trade.

Let's take a simple example. Country A and Country B both proce cotton sweaters and wine. Country A proces 10 sweaters and six bottles of wine a year while Country B proces six sweaters and 10 bottles of wine a year. Both can proce a total of 16 units. Country A, however, takes three hours to proce the 10 sweaters and two hours to proce the six bottles of wine (total of five hours). Country B, on the other hand, takes one hour to proce 10 sweaters and three hours to proce six bottles of wine (total of four hours).

But these two countries realize that they could proce more by focusing on those procts with which they have a comparative advantage. Country A then begins to proce only wine and Country B proces only cotton sweaters. Each country can now create a specialized output of 20 units per year and trade equal proportions of both procts. As such, each country now has access to 20 units of both procts.

We can see then that for both countries, the opportunity cost of procing both procts is greater than the cost of specializing. More specifically, for each country, the opportunity cost of procing 16 units of both sweaters and wine is 20 units of both procts (after trading). Specialization reces their opportunity cost and therefore maximizes their efficiency in acquiring the goods they need. With the greater supply, the price of each proct would decrease, thus giving an advantage to the end consumer as well.

Note that, in the example above, Country B could proce both wine and cotton more efficiently than Country A (less time). This is called an absolute advantage, and Country B may have it because of a higher level of technology. However, according to international trade theory, even if a country has an absolute advantage over another, it can still benefit from specialization. (For a review of some of these economic concepts, see the Economics Basics tutorial.)

Other Possible Benefits of Trading Globally
International trade not only results in increased efficiency but also allows countries to participate in a global economy, encouraging the opportunity of foreign direct investment (FDI), which is the amount of money that indivials invest into foreign companies and other assets. In theory, economies can therefore grow more efficiently and can more easily become competitive economic participants.

For the receiving government, FDI is a means by which foreign currency and expertise can enter the country. These raise employment levels and, theoretically, lead to a growth in the gross domestic proct. For the investor, FDI offers company expansion and growth, which means higher revenues.

Free Trade vs. Protectionism
As with other theories, there are opposing views. International trade has two contrasting views regarding the level of control placed on trade: free trade and protectionism. Free trade is the simpler of the two theories: a laissez-faire approach, with no restrictions on trade. The main idea is that supply and demand factors, operating on a global scale, will ensure that proction happens efficiently. Therefore, nothing needs to be done to protect or promote trade and growth because market forces will do so automatically.

In contrast, protectionism holds that regulation of international trade is important to ensure that markets function properly. Advocates of this theory believe that market inefficiencies may hamper the benefits of international trade and they aim to guide the market accordingly. Protectionism exists in many different forms, but the most common are tariffs, subsidies and quotas. These strategies attempt to correct any inefficiency in the international market.

Conclusion
As it opens up the opportunity for specialization and therefore more efficient use of resources, international trade has potential to maximize a country's capacity to proce and acquire goods. Opponents of global free trade have argued, however, that international trade still allows for inefficiencies that leave developing nations compromised. What is certain is that the global economy is in a state of continual change and, as it develops, so too must all of its participants.

如果你走进超市,并能买到南美香蕉,巴西咖啡和一瓶南非葡萄酒,您所遇到的影响国际贸易。

国际贸易使我们能够扩大我们的市场,商品和服务,否则可能没有提供给我们。这就是为什么您可以挑选之间日语,德语和美国车。由于国际贸易,市场包含更大的竞争,因此更具有竞争力的价格,由此带来更便宜的产品提供给消费者。

什么是国际贸易?
国际贸易是交流之间的货物和服务的国家。这种类型的贸易引起了世界经济,在这种价格或供应和需求,影响和影响的全球性活动。政治变化,例如,亚洲可能会导致成本增加的劳动力,从而增加了生产成本为美国的耐克公司总部设在马来西亚,然后导致价格上升,你不得不花钱购买在网球鞋在您当地的商场。在减少的劳动力成本,另一方面,将导致您不需要支付较少为您的新鞋。

贸易在全球范围和国家为消费者提供的机会接触到商品和服务不提供在自己的国家。几乎每一种产品可以在国际市场:食品,衣服,零件,石油,珠宝,葡萄酒,股票,货币和水。服务也是交易:旅游,金融,咨询和运输。产品销往全球市场的出口,和一种产品,是购买的全球市场是一个进口。进口和出口都是以一国的经常账户的国际收支。 (欲了解更多关于这个,请参阅文章什么是国际收支平衡?和了解目前帐户收支平衡。 )

提高效率,在全球范围内的交易
全球贸易允许富裕国家利用它们的资源-无论是劳动,技术或资本-更有效率。由于国家赋予了不同的资产和自然资源(土地,劳动力,资本和技术),一些国家可能产生同样的好,因此更有效地销售更便宜比其他国家。如果一个国家不能有效地产生一个项目,它可以取得该项目的贸易与其他国家可以。这就是所谓的专业化的国际贸易。

让我们来一个简单的例子。 A国和乙国毛衣都生产棉花和葡萄酒。 A国生产10毛衣和六瓶葡萄酒,而乙国生产6毛衣和10瓶葡萄酒一年。既可以产生,共有16个单位。 A国,但是,需要3个小时生产10毛衣和两小时内产生的6瓶葡萄酒(共5个小时) 。 B国,另一方面,需要一小时生产10毛衣和三个小时的生产六瓶葡萄酒(共4个小时) 。

但是这两个国家认识到,他们可以生产更多的是侧重于这些产品,他们具有相对优势。 A国然后开始只生产葡萄酒和乙国只生产棉花毛衣。每个国家现在可以创建一个专门的产出20个单位,每年的贸易同等比例的两种产品。因此,每个国家现在已进入20个单位的这两种产品。

我们可以看到那两个国家的机会成本,生产这两种产品是大于成本的专业。更具体而言,每个国家的机会成本,生产16单位都毛衣和葡萄酒为20单位的两种产品(交易)。专业化降低其机会成本,因此,最大限度地提高其效率获取他们所需要的货物。随着更多的供应,每个产品的价格将下降,从而有利于最终消费者以及。

请注意,在上面的例子中,国家B可以同时生产葡萄酒和棉花比国家更有效的(更少的时间)。这就是所谓的绝对优势,乙国可能是因为较高的技术水平。然而,根据国际贸易理论,即使一个国家拥有绝对优势,另外,它仍然可以受益于专业化。(审查其中的一些经济概念,请参阅经济学基础知识教程。 )

其他可能的好处的交易在全球范围内
国际贸易的结果,不仅提高了效率,而且也使国家参与全球经济,鼓励的机会,外国直接投资( FDI ) ,这是的金额,个人投资于外国公司和其他资产。从理论上讲,经济增长因此可以更有效,也更容易成为有竞争力的经济参与者。

为接受政府,外国直接投资是一种手段,外汇和专门知识可以进入该国。这些提高就业水平,从理论上讲,导致经济增长在国内生产总值。为投资者,外国直接投资提供了公司扩张和增长,这意味着更高的收入。

自由贸易与保护主义
至于其他的理论,有反对意见。国际贸易有两种截然不同的看法程度的控制放在贸易:自由贸易和保护主义。自由贸易是简单的两种理论:一种放任自流的方式,没有任何的贸易限制。主要的想法是,供应和需求的因素,在全球范围经营,将确保发生生产效率。因此,没有什么需要做,以保护或促进贸易和市场力量的增长,因为这样做将自动。

与此相反,保护主义认为调节国际贸易重要的是要确保市场的正常运作。主张这一理论认为,市场的低效率可能妨碍国际贸易的利益,他们的目的是引导市场相应。保护主义存在于许多不同的形式,但最常见的是关税,补贴和配额。这些战略企图,以纠正任何效率不高在国际市场上。

结论
因为它开辟了专门的机会,因此更有效地利用资源,国际贸易的潜力最大限度地发挥一个国家的能力,以生产和收购货物。反对者的全球自由贸易的主张,但是,国际贸易仍然允许效率低下离开发展中国家的损害。可以肯定的是,全球经济正处于不断的变化,因为它的发展,也必须在其所有与会者。